criticizing philosophical ethics of Thomas aquinas

Subject: Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas When we deeply discuss Thomas Aquinas ethical ideology, we will find so much things which are eminently different with other philosophers even his master Aristotle, his idea of ethics is so extensive and profound, so, that is why he is so-called very great philosopher in the history. Probably the main reason why he differ to other is he is a under the religious Dominic background, his idea composed by philosophy and theology at the same time, but here we do not talk his theology, while talk about his philosophical ethics. Basically his ethics is shown in Summa theology, second part, summa Contra Gentile, third part, and treatise on governance of rulers. This paper focus on discussing his ideological background, ethic perspectives, including virtual ethics specific, different ethics with Aristotle, and other focuses. Medieval thinker, Thomas Aquinas, play a vital role in many areas not only in philosophy, but theology and even legal, political and ideological history, in order to understand his ethical thinking, we may approach to grasp the precise the systematic Thomistic moral philosophy, what we call Aristotelian-Thomist tradition, and his specific from his writings and other commentaries. Denis Bradley mentioned in order to understand adequately the contrast between Aquinas’s rational theological ethics and strictly philosophical ethics, we need to know how Aquinas read Aristotle.[1] Which implies how the relationship between Thomas and Aristotle is, respectively, we cannot neglect Aquinas’s theological beliefs and metaphysical tenets in his mind, especially Thomistic metaphysical doctrine of “participation”, so that those things should be considered in understanding or criticizing his ethics now, and also use holistic approach to treat or see his writing and writing of his followers. Background of Aquinas’s Ethics Thinking. We know that the system of Aquinas philosophy is under the framework of character and development of Aristotle, notwithstanding he specified his ideas sometime, but not absolutely separated with him, there are many ethics experts believe that the history of Aristotle’s ethics is the called “virtue ethics”, that is why we need to understand the Aristotle philosophical system first. Liu jinchang concludes Artistotle philosophy as following: [2] 多瑪斯的倫理思想和他的哲學體系相似，在一般的情況之下，主要是本著亞里斯多德的哲學思路與倫理特徵來述說與發展，而倫理學史專家則多認為亞氏的倫理學乃所謂的「德性倫理學」，多瑪斯的倫理思想基本上是屬於此一思想系統的路線。組織論：邏輯學 Organization Theory: Logic 整體理論哲學：形上學(第一哲學/(自然)神學)，物性學、數學(第二哲學)The whole theory of philosophy: metaphysics (first philosophy / (natural) theology), physics and Mathematics (Second philosophy) 科學實踐哲學：倫理學、經濟學、政治學Science and practical philosophy: ethics, economics, political science (哲學) 詩文哲學：藝術哲Poetry Philosophy: Philosophy of Art This distinction shows that Ethics belongs to the practical philosophy in the whole philosophy of Aristotle For Aristotle, the ethics and political science and economics are the same rank, to think about the ethical have to address the issue of political and economic magnitude, this also means that Aristotle's ethics is not limited to the level of personal ethics, but also and in the ethical dimension of society. In the eyes of Aristotle, the highest applied Science is political science, while ethics is part of political science, the British Aristotelian experts WDRoss, [3] pointed out that in Aristotle, "the entire political science "is divided into two parts, called Ethics and Political Science. Aristotle's Ethics is about the society, and his political science is about the ethics science, he did not forget the individual person is the basic members of society in his political study, he did not forget the good country life is mere existed its good life of citizens in his politics.有關亞氏的倫理學思想主要可以從《宜高邁倫理學》（Nicomachean Ethics）一書加以探討；亞里斯多德的倫理學是從我人平常所知道的道理、經驗、習慣開始，然後一步步往上去探討所不知道的絕對真理，亞氏認為人生主要在追求善─幸福，而這也是政治的目的，「政治與倫理之目的，唯在求人之善」。 In order to know the thinking of Aristotle's ethics mainly be from Nicomachean Ethics, [4] Aristotle's ethics is usually from people, truth, experience, habits, and then step by step to explore the absolute truth that we don’t know. Aristotle thought mainly in the pursuit of good life is happiness, which is also the purpose of politics, purpose of studying political and ethical is for sake of goodness. 亞里斯多德指出，要研究政治學和倫理學的學生，須有良好的教養、道德基礎穩定才能從中獲益。so sooo So those who study politics and ethics must have a good education.亞氏提到德性有兩種：理智的德性與倫理的德性，而這兩種德性都需要培育養成。 Aristotle Virtue has two types: rational morality and virtue ethics, and both should be cultivated.[5] Ceng yangru considers [6] Aristotle’s ethics can be said a happiness theory, teleology, and rationalism. For sake of understanding what happiness is, we need to understand what human being is, what difference between human being and animal is discussed by Aristotle, Aristotle advocates that people are rational being, human life is based on rational principles, the rational principles includes not only passively obey the instructions of the principle of rationality, but also take the initiative to have the ability to exercise rational principle. 所謂的幸福，並非個人主觀的感受且是隨心所欲漫無標準，對亞里斯多德而言，幸福有三條件：身體（健康）、財富與德性，這三條件是同時必備的，缺乏理性與美德就沒有幸福可言，「幸福是善德的實現」Happiness is not the personal subjective feelings and random arbitrary standards, Aristotle, defines happiness has three conditions: the body (health), wealth and virtue, these three conditions are necessary at the same time, if no rationality and virtue, there will be no happiness at all, his idea is similar with Chinese proverb: Happiness is the realization of holy virtue." 基本上，亞氏的倫理學從人類的自愛出發，但是卻不是只限於自私自利的層面，他的倫理也強調在理性之間的中道，中庸之道是亞氏倫理學的特徵。Basically, Aristotle's Ethics, starting from the human self-love, but is not limited to the level of selfishness, he also stressed the ethical in a rational middle way. For Thomas Aquinas, basically he uses Aristotle's philosophy, for instance, metaphysics, epistemology, and psychology, and even cosmology and ethics opinions of the thinking, in general he follows Aristotle, but one the fundamental spirit level, St. Thomas Aquinas have been following the principles of Christian philosophy or more accurately described as the orthodox Christian theology to deepen and expand Aristotle thought, its philosophical principle can help clear exposition of medieval theology and faith issues. Copleston神父在《多瑪斯思想簡介》書中，曾經說明亞氏與多瑪斯的思想關連與差異，同時也指出多瑪斯的倫理學和亞氏的區別，Copleston說： Father Copleston in the book, Thomas Aquinas's Thought, spelled out the connection and difference between Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, Copleston said:[7] 多瑪斯完全清楚知道，一位好像亞里斯多德的希臘哲學家，能夠區別道德的與不道德的行動；而且他自己也採納了許多亞里斯多德關於倫理問題所作的分析。Thomas Aquinas's completely know that one of the Greek philosopher Aristotle seems to be able to distinguish between moral and immoral actions, and that he himself has adopted a number of Aristotle on the analysis of ethical issues. 不過，他也深信，如果我們沒有天主的啟示，那麼關於人生的目的，以及人類的至高之善等問題，就只能有一個不完善的和不全相稱的知識。 However, he also convinced that if we do not have God's revelation, then the purpose of life as well as the highest of the good of mankind and so on which can only have an imperfect and incomplete knowledge….. …當他討論人的最後目的時，他以亞里斯多德的『幸福』觀念開始，而以『在天上享見天主』這個基督教會的道理結束；或者當他討論德性時，他也是以談論有關『信、望、愛』這三種『神性或超性之德』，來完成他的討論。When he discusses the final purpose, he starts from Aristotle's concept happiness to discuss it, but end by contemplation of God as perfect happiness. In Pocket Aquinas [8] book, saying perfect happiness as the contemplation of God, the end of our desires is God, hence, the act whereby we are primarily joined to him is basically and substantially our happiness. But we are primarily united with God by an act of understanding; and therefore, the very seeing of god, our happiness. And when he discusses ethics, he adds three theological virtue, faith, hope, and charity. The object of theological virtue is God himself, who is the last of all, as surpassing our knowledge of our reason. . For this point, Aquinas surpasses and promotes the Aristotle’s philosophical ethics. Alasdair Macintyre in A Short History of Ethics,[9] 本世紀的倫理學大師A. Maclntyre在《倫理學簡史》中，也提到多瑪斯的倫理學在默觀（qewria）、telos，以及諸德性等概念之意義上，轉化了亞里斯多德的倫理觀，補充了自然法（natural law）的啟示內含；最主要的是，他們兩人的倫理學在人性的基本見解上有差異，因為多瑪斯是基督徒他認為人性受到原罪的影響，無法實踐人內心所想also referred to Thomas Aquinas's concept of ethics in silent contemplation (qewria), telos, as well as the various concepts of meaning of virtue, Aquinas transformed of Aristotle's ethics and complemented the natural law includes the Enlightenment. Therefore their main difference is on the level of basic view of human nature, as Thomas Aquinas was a Christian he believes that human nature affected by original sin, human cannot practice what act we desire in our heart. 我們可以看出，多瑪斯原則上只是補充，而非取代亞里斯多德的倫理學，但是多瑪斯更主張說，亞氏所說的幸福乃不完美的幸福，因為幸福在能看見上帝；亞氏的幸福是在今生中獲得，但是對多瑪斯而言，真正的幸福是屬於來生之事；且我們知道，多瑪斯的上帝觀與亞里斯多德的上帝觀，在上帝「位格的」性質認識上截然不we can see that Thomas Aquinas's principle only complement and not replace Aristotle's ethics, but Thomas also argued that Aristotle referred to happiness is not perfect happiness, because happiness can be seen in God; Aristotle's happiness in this life to gain, but Thomas Aquinas, the true happiness is a matter of the next life. Denis Bradley mentioned, Aquinas transforms the Aristotelian notion of eudaimonia by introducing the theological distinction between “imperfect” and “perfect” happiness. [10] Thus, we can say their differential concept may focus on the nature of God. Thomas Aquinas's Virtue Ethics德性倫理學所專注的是如何成就聖賢人格、重視人的性格特點，所問的問題是：「要成為甚麼樣的人？」、「我該是怎樣的人？」，德性倫理學在最近二十年來，重新受到倫理學界的注意。,多瑪斯的倫理學甚多討論到德性問題，聖師認為德性是一種使人易於行善的習慣： there are a lot of issues discussed; Saint thinks virtue that is people’s habit easily to do good. So that he distinguishes different virtue, human nature virtue including moral virtue and intellectual virtue, and supernatural virtue, moral virtue (cardinal virtue: Prudence, temperance, justice, and fortitude), while supernatural virtue: faith, hope and love - the three theological virtues. His three theological virtue shows that the virtue is not only talk about right or fault, justice or injustice, but further discuss how to reach our ultimate end of man, therefore his ethics is a virtue ethics. Because he is able to give us a complete notion of ethics, four cardinal virtues is for perfect humanness, three theological virtues is connect virtue between God and human beings. Thus, we can say Thomas Aquinas’s virtue is different with classical Greece and Chinese Confucian Virtue Ethics, because in general ethics rarely refer faith, hope, love, etc. In addition, 我們可以發現，當多瑪斯討論倫理學思想之時，他頻頻論及上帝的恩典，從基督信仰系統神學上的恩典論觀點，來了解多瑪斯的神學倫理學乃是重要的一環。多瑪斯認為人類始祖犯罪導致整個人性受到創傷，即使四樞德是德性的功臣，也經常受到罪所損傷，恩典與德性不同，恩典是另外的一種德性－「是另有一種從外灌注的德性，是把世人作較高的安排，來達成一較高的目的，因而所依據的，是一種較高的本性，即是他所參享的『神』的本性，…正由於這種參享，我們才得稱為重生作上帝的子女。」，從外灌注的德性叫人依照恩典之光來行事，而恩典也不是信、望、愛這三種神學德性，人能夠知道恩典的臨在是由於啟示；我們可以說多瑪斯的倫理學特色在此充分顯示出來，人性倫理其行善的最高峰grace is another virtue for Thomas Aquinas, it is another perfusion from the outside of virtue from God in accordance with the infusion of people to act in the light of grace, so grace is not faith, hope, and love these three theological virtues, Liu Jinchang says[11] because human beings are arranged by God is to participate in nature of god, so man can be son or daughter of God.在《神學大全》裡頭多瑪斯用不少篇幅探討恩典論的問題，他認為人類德性的完成，與上帝的恩典有絕對的關係。 In the "Summa theology,” [12] treatise on Grace, (Q 104-109), Thomas Aquinas discusses lots points of grace, he thought there is a necessarily and absolutely relationship between achievement of human virtue and God’s grace. It is why Dominicans emphasize more grace in human salvation.人類德性最基本的原則是合乎「正當的理性」以及「中庸」－適當的時間、地點、方法等，而正當的理性所產生的第一倫理原則是：「行善避惡」，雖然所謂的善可能人人定義不同，但是對於人類而言，有客觀的行為法則可以依循，這客觀的行為法則就其通性來說乃自然法，若就人類主體而言則是指人類個人的良知，基本上可以說肯定自然法與人的良知，是人性普遍共通的「判準」。 It is said by Liu Jinchang, the most fundamental principles of human morality is in line with "legitimate reason" and "moderation" in an appropriate time, place, method, and so rational and proper ethics arising from the first principle is: "do good avoid evil". [13] Although different people have different definition of good, but for humans, have an objective code of conduct to follow, it is a natural law, according to Dr. Vasco teaching, [14] natural law with God created universal is under divine law and moral law is included in natural law, which also participate in eternal law. Mary Clark in his essay,[15] saying that and such participation by the rational creature in the eternal law is called natural law. The natural law is in individual conscience and syderesis of mankind, basically, it can be said definitely natural law and human conscience combine a common human nature in general "criterion." Etienne Gilson also saying law is a determination that is at the very least based on custom and is in accord with universal conscience. [16] In summa Contra Gentiles, Thomas makes mention of Law as a guide for human ethics when he discusses the problem of ethics. In Summa Contra Gentiles, [17]the second part, 111-146, discussed the law, the correct belief, latria, marriage, human relations, poverty, chastity, virtue, reward and punishment, etc, these laws are named divine law, Thomas insists it is necessarily existed to ration human for both individual and social community, because only people, rational creature are qualified to accept the law, for main purpose of the law is to guide human beings going to the end of human life united with God through practice of these virtues. God’s arranges these laws in order to let people understand and love God; therefore, ultimate virtue is attributed to the Lord. Law’s purposes mainly manifested in the love of the neighborhood, this is the "new law" is the law of love, that is, love Heavenly Father and love the world, Thomas Aquinas even think that this is belonging to the content of natural law, in line with the common nature of all human beings. 德性的具體實踐內容與宗教禮儀、三願（神貧、服從、貞節）等相關：it is the concrete practice of virtue and religious rituals, three vows (poverty, obedience and chastity) and other relevant virtues. Thomas thinks these virtues are attributed divine law, and this law should be a universal law for human being, thus he intensively discussed in Contra Gentiles. Here I discuss more his theological virtue or supernatural virtue: faith, hope, love. 神學美德也叫「超德」（supernatural virtues），此一術語始於十三世紀，是指那超過人性的本能、且完全出於上主恩典所帶來的力量與德性，所以超德乃來自他力而非自力；十六世紀以前超德的討論多屬教義神學的範圍，十六世紀以後則多在倫理神學中探討，現今則除了在神學倫理學範疇內，也在救恩論、靈修神學裡頭反省超德的課題，當今天主教倫理神學泰斗B. ing，在《基督之律》書中稱呼超德為「直接以上主為對象的德性」，也是道德生活的超性化（神性化）基礎。ÁHThis one began in the thirteenth century, In Christian philosophy, theological virtues are the character qualities associated with salvation. The three theological virtues are: Faith - steadfastness in belief , Hope- expectation of and desire of receiving; refraining from despair and capability of not giving up, Love or Charity - selfless, unconditional, and voluntary loving-kindness.[18] From his theological virtue, we see clearly the theological character of the Thomistic moral order, and he insists how man enables to see God in the heaven is through not only the theological virtue but also divine grace mentioned previously. given this foundational theological belief, which determines its point of view, Thomistic ethics cannot be fully characterized as philosophical, only faith, not philosophy affirms that man can actually attain the God. Thomas pointed out that the object of faith is the first truth, and apart from virtue revealed by God, there is no any other things based on God. The basis of faith is a sacred truth, including Incarnation of Jesus Christ, Trinity of God, and Church sacraments. Thomas Aquinas tells us that theological virtue is for the purpose of God. Maritain, Jacques also states there are two kinds virtue, one is infused virtue, another one is acquired virtue, latter one is natural virtue, while former one is supernatural virtue.[19] But Denis J.M. Bradley saying that theological character of Aquinas’s moral science does not derogate it rational character, because moral order made by human choice and action done because human has rational intellect and will.[20] So this is how we consider Thomistic ethics is still a part of his philosophy, therefore, Denis Bradley once concludes that Aquinas’s moral science is, according to its own standard, both rational and theological.[21] Moral good and evil, through Thomas writing, we know it is impossible to completely know God's infinite goodness is our mind. 當然，至善上主的屬性與這世上惡的存在似有衝突，多瑪斯也理會到當中的問題，不過他區分了物質的惡、倫理的惡之不同，且人類的自私、愚昧也帶來許多不幸；多瑪斯看來傾向主張說倫理的惡並非上主所積極願意的，但好像為了使倫理的善可以在對照之下顯出光明，上主容許了倫理的惡。 Of course, the perfect attributes of God and the existence of evil in this world may have a conflict to which Thomas Aquinas also ignored the issue, but he made a distinction between substances evil and ethics evil, and also human selfishness, ignorance also brings to many unfortunate in the world, Thomas Aquinas argued and inclined to say evil is Lord is not willing to have the ethics evil, but it seems to be for good ethics in contrast evil, God allowed ethics evil to exist. The Source of Ethics of Thomas Aquinas, Thomas Aquinas believed that morality is based on the nature of things created, that is, the so-called "natural law".. 由於一切事物都是上帝按其智慧創造的，因此，自然法的基礎在於上帝的理性或智慧（the order of divine reason or wisdom），此即所謂永恆法（eternal law）。 Because all things are created by God according to their intelligence, the foundation of natural law is God's rationality or intelligence (the order of divine reason or wisdom), namely the so-called eternal law. 道德是人透過理性分辨，對自然法的掌握，亦即間接對上帝永恆法則的參與。 Morality is rational to distinguish through the grasp of natural law, or indirectly on the participation of God's eternal law. 因此，道德的終極基礎不是上帝的意志，而是上帝的理性智慧。 Therefore, the ultimate foundation of morality is not God's will, but God's rational intelligence.  Of course, this does not mean that Thomas Aquinas's ethics is just a rationalist-oriented ethics, a matter of fact, the will of God in Thomas Aquinas's rational thinking has a certain status, Thomas Aquinas shows that we should not of depend on the will of God as the only standard for morality, what he wants to specify is that the reason and the will of God are the basis of moral order (the final root causes). 倫理的根源或說道德價值的形上基礎（最後基礎）、最高的自有價值到底是什麼？不能是一種空無的理想而已，最後基礎、根源性的事物其價值與存在應該是合一的；對多瑪斯來說上帝是最高、最基礎性的存有（存有的根基），而人類的良知在倫理判斷上、人類意志在倫理實踐上趨向一個理想價值，我們的倫理判斷與倫理行為乃是由此一理想價值、最後While human conscience in the ethical judgments, the human will tend to practice in the ethical value of an ideal, our ethics and ethical behavior determines which one is the ideal value towards the ultimate end, thus, it must go to God as a final source. Now we start to discuss the relationship between law and ethics of Thomas Aquinas, aiming at understanding the final source is God, his law system is very systematic and clear. Liu Jinchang summarizes, [22] first, divine law, including eternal law and natural law, eternal law is the decree of God that governs all creation, natural law is the human “participation” in the eternal law and is discovered by reason, so natural law is based on first principle. Second, human law, which is a natural law applied by government in society. 討論律法時多瑪斯是從上主之神為法的永恆法開始，對於律法或法律，多瑪斯認為法律是人性行為的規則，由人類理性所認知，而且「上主從永遠就在人的本性裡」，所以，上主與人性的完成（達到法律與倫理的終極目的）有密切關連。 Thomas Aquinas starts discussion of the law from the eternal law; the law is the rules for natural human beings and is perceived by human reason, the law is existed naturally in human nature, Therefore, God and humanity are closely connected to complete the ultimate legal and ethical purposes. 宇宙規律的根源可以回溯到上帝此存有的最高基礎之上，我們從人類對自然法的領受多少可以體會；自然法、自然界的齊一律則讓人發現一種秩序、道德感，人間的各種實證法（positive law）之正義基礎不能忽略自然法，自然法介於人為法與永恆法之間，永恆法既為一切倫理最高原則，分享永恆法的自然法是人類本性的自然道德律We human beings can discover and experience the natural law, order, morality, human various empirical Law (positive law). Therefore, we should not overlook the natural law, for natural law is between man-made law and eternal law, eternal law is the supreme principle of ethics for all to share the eternal law. Human Acts and Act of man, Thomas Aquinas distinguishes human acts and acts of human clearly, human acts is acts are human if they are proper to man as man, they are freely chosen by man with the awareness of taking judgment between things. Thus, human acts are either good or evil; on the other hand, if acts are not proper to man and deviates from the quality of man as a rational being. It is therefore considered acts of human. These are acts that are elicited by man as an animal and not as rational person. [23] Thomas Aquinas insists a person is by his own reason and the will to become the master of his acts, and acts of free will is an act of humanity, it is Thomas Aquinas's important Ethics concept. 非人性的行為，像「人的行為」這類的就不屬於倫理學的研究範疇；人性的行為才是倫理學主要的研究對象。Well-known Western medieval philosopher E. Gilson in the "Christian philosophy of Thomas Aquinas Aquinas,"[24] the book that, he points to describe the six themes: love and passion, personal life, social life, religious life, the last end, and spirit of Thomism when he discussed the ethics of Thomas Aquinas. In the subsequent themes, I will briefly discuss several themes in order to know the entire construction of his ethics and applicable implication of implementation in certain areas. Conscience and Synderesis, in Thomas Aquinas philosophy these two subjects are in human acts realm. He emphasizes more conscience as a standard in human ethics. Conscience is ….an act..; knowledge (the first principles of practical reason: do good and avoid evil) applied to an individual situation….This is recognized from what is attributed to conscience.[25] Synderesis designates either simply a habit, or else the potency as developed in us by an innate habit.[26] 羅光指出多瑪斯主張：「良心是人心（理智）的一種警告，告訴人目前當行之善，或當避之惡」，但是良心雖然包含對自然天理此良知的認識能力，卻不是說人的良知能認識一切人世間的倫理規律；良知是廣義良Luo Guang pointed out that Thomas Aquinas's claim: "conscience is people's minds (reason) as a warning to tell people to do good and avoid evil", [27]but although conscience includes cognitive ability of knowing the first principle, but it does not say person's conscience will understand all the ethical laws of the human world. For human, 對人類而言，倫理的規範有三：神為律、人為律以及良心，故良心不是唯一、最後的規範，良心必須對應著永恆法、（啟示法）福音律、自然法以及人類社會的各種法律來斷定，但是當我們在行使倫理判斷之時，良心在該時段乃我們所應當服從的唯一規範。 ethical norms have three: for the law of God, man-made law and conscience, the conscience is not the only and final norms, so that conscience must correspond with the eternal law, (Revelation Law) Gospel law, natural law and human society law to determine, but when we judge the exercise of ethics, conscience is the only norm that we should obey. 基本上，良知猶如理性之火花，是倫理原則的大前提，人類都曉得要「行善避惡」，可是在對具體個別的倫理知識運用上或會出錯，錯誤的良心不是指良知本身出問題，而是因為我們人類的故意或疏忽所導致，所以，人需對自己的行為負責Basically, conscience just like the rational spark, is the premise of ethical principles, human knows that he must "do good avoid evil", but sometimes we make wrong of applying the knowledge in specific individual, the wrong conscience was not referring to the conscience itself has problem, but because we human beings caused by willful or negligent, thus, people need to held accountable for their actions. Ethics and society, 多瑪斯的社會哲學七百多年來一直是基督信仰思想史上重要的引導，特別對中世紀的社會思想影響深遠，E. Troeltsch在其名著《基督教社會思想史》裡頭，就花費相當的精力分析多瑪斯的倫理觀與社會哲學，氏指出多瑪斯的社會觀是理性化與基督化了的，整個社會的秩序服從在十誡、自然法的理性倫理與理性體系之內，但是又透過神恩超自然道德行為的引導，Troeltsch認為多瑪斯所建構的體系是十分邏輯的，「那完全基於神蹟力量和啟示的倫理體系，只能藉一種權威的神蹟和上帝的客觀行動，才可以維繫不墜。同樣顯然地，像這樣的一種權威必須依照嚴格的法律形式組成，要有極清楚地標揭神性威力的效用」。Thomas Aquinas's philosophy of society has more than 700 years history as a guide of Christian thinking, particularly influenced the social thinking of the middle Ages. Ernst Troeltsch in his classic " The social teaching of the Christian churches ",[28] he spent considerable energy analysis Thomas Aquinas's Ethics and social philosophy, he pointed out that Thomas Aquinas’s society's concept is rational and Christianization, whole society should obey the Ten Commandments, natural rational ethics and rational system, but it should be through God’s supernatural guidance of ethical conduct. Troeltsch think Thomas Aquinas’s systematic ethics is very logical; Society and ethics are connected under the premise of faith to constitute a huge system of organisms of patriarchal class.在多瑪斯的眼中，人是社會的（政治的）也是倫理的動物，而倫理的最後目的就是超自然的－享見上主；社會中有個人生活、家庭生活及城邦（國家）的政治生活，這些生活皆具有倫理的幅度，都應該是為了幫助我們達到超自然的目的： In the eyes of Thomas Aquinas, human beings are not only political animal but also ethical animal, and ethics of the final purpose is supernatural - seeing God; society has personal life, family life and political life, all these kinds’ lives are related with ethics in order to help us achieve the supernatural purpose. Personal life and friendship, Thomas Aquinas's Ethics openly stressed the friendship, which also showed his basic ideas that human is social beings, people need a real friendship. Thomas Aquinas thinks in this world there is only genuine friendship is the best things. Because the friendship can gather the virtuous people who are able to joint together, so friendship is a great source of pleasure, friendliness can make difficult things to become easy. on the value of friendship, Thomas had said a touching story: A tyrant has two friends, when the tyrant decided to kill one of them, this was condemned to death one requests a certain number of days of grace period in order to deal with home matter, another one, he voluntarily agreed to act as hostages to ensure that person under sentence of death scheduled to come back to torture. When time approaches to the prison term, but that person has not yet come back, people sneer at the folly of hostages, but he firmly believes that a reliable friend; when the execution really closes to the time, he really come back. So the tyrant appreciates their masculinity for their unshakable friendship, and rescinds that decision and requests them to accept him as a third party to the combination of their friendship. Thomas Aquinas pointed out, no matter how a tyrant would like to enjoy such a friendship, however, tyrant never can win this kind of enjoyment of friendship and happiness, because the tyrants are concerned about public well-being not only their own interests. Friendship is a precious priceless, is the peak performance of ethics. James schall wrote friendship is more important than justice, even in the city, the fact is that when he comes to discuss the highest of the Christian virtues, charity, he bases his discussion on friendship, not on justice. It may be the most important selection in all of social philosophy both by way of confirmation of Aristotle and by way of emphasizing something beyond him.[29] Family life, Thomas were seriously to discuss family life in his social thought, he discussed the significance of family and relations among the family members. 家庭是人所依靠歸屬的第一個社會，為確保個人生存及種的血統延續，但是家庭通常無法提供個人生存所需一切物質的條件，一般也無法將成員引導至道德的完善；所以更需要城邦或國家。People rely on the family is vested in the first society, in order to ensure personal survival and renewal of species of human origin, however families usually can not provide all material required for the individual to survive, and the conditions also can not generally guide family members to reach the moral perfection. Therefore human beings need city and state. 多瑪斯認為家庭若無子女則不完整，而家庭是始於婚姻，婚姻需是自願與永恆的結合，也需是一男一女的結合，婚姻具有不可侵犯的永恆性，婚姻中人有義務也有權利，婚姻是神聖的，其神聖性是透過了上主的恩寵使得愛流入夫妻的心靈之中，讓婚姻不失去其香氣，人在完美的婚姻裡頭才能有道德的發展，以及過崇高的精神生活。 Thomas Aquinas points out If there are no children in the family, we consider the family is incomplete; and the family began with the marriage; marriage is voluntary and eternal by one man and one woman, combined with the inviolability of marriage and the eternal nature of the obligation of human marriage; also marriage have the right, is sacred; and its sanctity is through the grace of God makes love flowing into the hearts of husband and wife, the marriage does not lose its aroma; only in the perfect marriage, it is possible to have moral development as well as the high spiritual life.  The purpose of country, in Summa theologiae, Thomas Aquinas pointed out that people are social and political animal, even in a state of innocence, mankind is living a social life. In pocket Aquinas says man is assisted by the civil group of which he is a member, not only in regard to bodily things like the many artifacts found in a civil community which a single household could not provide, but also in regard to moral matters.[30] 國家的存在是一種自然的組織，是為了促進大眾的福利，因此，國家在倫理方面的意義在於增進人民的善良合乎人性的生活，國家的法律若有不公平並造成人民重擔，這樣的法律就不是法律而是暴政了，這樣的法律與政治對良心就沒有約束力，違反正義、自然法的法律是不應該遵Country is a natural existence of organizations in order to promote the public welfare, therefore, in the country the significance of the ethical aspects of the people is to promote the good and humane life, if the law of the country is unfair, there will be the burden caused to its people, such law is not legal but the tyranny, such law and politics will lose its power to guide conscience of people, so that we cannot obey those against justice and natural law.當暴君濫用自己的權力地位時，可以合法地推翻他們。 When the tyrants abuse their positions of power, people can reverse them. Conclusion: Thomas Aquinas's Ethics basically subject to the Aristotle's ethical thought, besides this, although here we talk about philosophy itself, but Thomas’s thought is mixed with a great deal of Christian spirit and perspectives, particular in Ethics, and we can see whatever he judges and discuss a specific issue is based on the divine law and eternal law as a highest moral standard, therefore Thomas can boldly declare his opinion even reject the great well known Aristotle if Aristotle is contradicted with orthodox Christian spirituality, so his specificity is shown within these details. Probably we can say Thomas’s philosophical ethics is essentially combined by philosophy and theology. So, Aristotle never can reach Thomas’s ethics level. J. Maritain philosopher as well as historians of philosophy, Copleston have pointed out that Thomas Aquinas's ethics is in fact a kind of revelation and theological ethics; as Fr. Li Zhen said:[31] "As a Catholic philosopher ... He/she must combine the natural law and moral law with God and the absolute divine law together, so that human law and humanity can have a firm and unchangeable law as a cornerstone.” In addition, through the previous discussion, we may say Thomas Aquinas’s philosophical ethics must be inspired and improved by revelation. Maritain said the philosophy of ethics is clearly not enough to guide human beings. By the number of contemporary Christian philosopher's view, we can find Thomas Aquinas's ethics thinking 700 years ago, the structure and direction of Ethics is still clear to provide a guiding light for today's ethics, his so many ethics points are still applicable in discussing ethics issues today, for instance, on human sexual behavior, bioethics norms, homosexual, stem-cell skills, clone application technology, divorce, abortion, family planning, human rights, gender development, and so on. [1] Denis J.M. Bradley, Aquinas on the Twofold Human Good, Reason and Human Happiness in Aquinas’s Moral Science, The Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D.C, 1997, p. xi. [2] Liu Jinchang, Thomas Aquinas’s Theological Ethics, Accessed from http://www.ttcs.org.tw/~church/25.1/12.htm , Feb 12, 2009 [3] W. D. Ross, Aristotle, Beijin Commercial Press, 1997, p.206. [4] 苗力田，《尼各馬科倫理學》，中國人民大學印行 參《亞里斯多德之宜高邁倫理學》，譯者導言頁4。 (Miao Litian, translator, <>, Renmin University of China Press, Reference: Preface: P. 4. [5] Liu Jinchang, Thomas Aquinas’s Theological Ethics, Accessed from http://www.ttcs.org.tw/~church/25.1/12.htm , Feb 12, 2009 [6] 曾仰如，＜多瑪斯的倫理思想＞，參《多瑪斯論文集》，台北先知出版社，1975，頁255 (ceng Yangru, Thomas’s Ethics Thought, Reference: Thomas Memoir, Taipei Prophet Press, 1975, 255. [7] 柯布登(F. C. Copleston)，胡安德译，《多玛斯思想简介》，台南：闻道出版社，1974,頁262-263 (F. C. Copleston, Andrew hu, Translator, Introduction of Thomas Aquinas Thought, Tainan, Wendao Press, 1974, p.262-263. [8] Vernon J Bourke, The Pocket Aquinas (Selected from Summas of Theology and more than thirty other writings of St. Thomas), Published in 1960, Washington Square Press , p.191-192. [9] Alasdair Macintyre, A Short History of Ethics, NY: Collier Books, 1966, p.117-118. [10] Ibid, P. xii. [11] Liu Jinchang, Thomas Aquinas’s Theological Ethics, Accessed from http://www.ttcs.org.tw/~church/25.1/12.htm , Feb 12, 2009 [12] Summa Theologica, St. Thomas Aquinas, Benziger Bros. edition, 1947, Translated by fathers of the English Dominican Province. [13] Ibid, http://www.ttcs.org.tw/~church/25.1/12.htm , Feb 12, 2009 [14] Dr. Michael Anthony C. Vasco, UST professor of Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, 2009 [15] Mary T. Clark, An Aquinas Reader, edited with an Introduction and Five Sectional Essays, (from Summa Theologiae I-II, q. 91, a. 2) , Fordham University Press, New York, 2000, p. 303. [16] Etienne Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, Random House, Inc., New York, 2nd Printing, 1956, p. 265 [17] Thomas Aquinas, Joseph Kenny translated, Summa Contra Gentiles, O.P., New York: Hanover House, 1955-57 [18] Theological virtue, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Accessed from, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theological_virtues Feb 18, 2009 [19] Jacques. Maritain，《西洋道德哲学》，台北国立编译馆，1992，页126-130。(Moral Philosophy-A Historical and Critical Survey of the Great System, Taipei National Translation Press, p. 126-130) [20] Denis J.M. Bradley, Aquinas on the Twofold Human Good: Reason and Human Happiness in Aquinas’s Moral Science, The Catholic University of America Press, Washington, D.C, 1997, p.89. [21] Denis J.M Bradley, “Aristotelian Science and the Science of Thomistic Theology,” Heythrop Journal Volume 22 (1981): 162-171 [22] Ibid, Liu Jinchang, Thomas Aquinas’s Theological Ethics, Accessed from http://www.ttcs.org.tw/~church/25.1/12.htm , Feb 12, 2009 [23] Human acts =acts of humans? Feb 15, 2009 accessed from http://ethicsforteachers.blogspot.com/2008/04/human-acts-of-humans.html [24] Etienne Gilson, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, Random House, Inc., New York, 2nd Printing, 1956, p. 271-357 [25] Mary T. Clark, An Aquinas Reader, edited with an Introduction and Five Sectional Essays, (from Summa Theologiae I, q. 79, a. 13) , Fordham University Press, New York, 2000, p. 324-325. [26] Vernon J Bourke, The Pocket Aquinas (Selected from Summas of Theology and more than thirty other writings of St. Thomas), Published in 1960, Washington Square Press , p.199. [27]罗光，《实践哲学》，台湾学生书局，1979，包页241。（Luo Guang, Practical Philosophy, Taiwan Student Press, p.241. [28] Ernst Troeltsch, The social teaching of the Christian churches, Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992. p. 201-207 [29] James V. Schall, The Uniqueness of the Political Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, Journal article, Perspectives on Political Science, Vol. 26, 1997. 7. p.4 [30] Vernon J Bourke, The Pocket Aquinas (Selected from Summas of Theology and more than thirty other writings of St. Thomas), Published in 1960, Washington Square Press , p.232. [31] Li Zhen, Human and God (Volume 4), Fu Jen Catholic University Press, 1994, p.209

Reflection of Asian Value in the context of

Niu Jinfang Ph.D. Major in Development Studies march 28, 2009 Education and culture both may have different meaning. Speaking with relation to value and culture, education as an instrument and entire process of development of value strength, in which the age of juvenile receive the traditional value and transform and renew those value to a innovated value to sustain and develop our value in different space and time, and the value is certainly the context of culture in a country. We know that education is a main motive of spread of culture, while culture provides the circumstance to education; meanwhile it becomes main educational context. Thus, education as “the core of value system, and value is a endless and unfailing energy in education.” In the process of development and satisfaction of human beings, the good strategy is developing education and culture at the same time, and also both are the final purpose of development. Researching the relation between education and culture, only should go through the discussion with development the topic, however development is a multi-layers, globally, and multi-factors synergy and continuous process, human are the basic foundation, motives, and ultimate goals in this process of development. This paper focus on Asian value in Chinese school setting of context under the construction of development of China, first of all, illustrate Asian value’s effects positively and negatively to educational and economic development by using facts, I think that we should not only inherit and preserve the traditional value but also renew and develop cultural traditions. Secondly, from the trend of globalization in all areas, briefly discuss how to integrate Asian value and West value through education in order to foster the common value globally. Finally, emphasize that human centered development mode should be the ultimate goal in the education and culture in 21 century. Due to Asian value’s variety, this paper mainly discusses Confucianism education and culture. Although Confucianism tradition is being of long standing and expanded globally, nonetheless, it is only one part of Asian value, particular China now is participating in international affairs, we already realize that integration of historical tradition, modern education, and socioeconomic development is a quit complex process, for instance, how to interpret human rights as a value from Asian value and West value. Therefore, there will be West components in Chinese educational system existing, but I will address particularly Asian value in Chinese school context generally. Asian value profits educational and economic development The following illustration is to generate the characters of Asian value which can benefit and promote educational and economic development. Importance of education value in Chinese history: Professor Fr. Aligan, O. P [1]taught that Academic background oriented society, such Asian values especially Confucian values and principles have promoted or built an academic background society where people are trained as bureaucrats. It is well known that Confucianism emphasizes education especially in school. In Confucius’s opinion, human beings can be changed to reach the level of goodness and perfection through intervention especially education. For instance, introspection, cultivation, and imitation can lead people to right way. I thought through education, we can effectively change the society to be better in humanity and doing common good for all. He even saw importance of education is the same with supply of food and national security administration. Zhou gave us a good example: One of his disciples asked him: “How to do, if the population is growth?” Confucius answered: “Making them to be rich”, the disciple asked again: “How to do, after they become rich?” Confucius answered again: “Educating them”. It is so clear that how education is important in the heart of Confucius.[2] In many centuries, education is a main foundation in all Asia of political, economic, and cultural lives. Especially the women who are worked in field, how they expect their children can get rid of poverty through education and then enter into high social classes. There is a famous proverb in China “Hoping son to become a dragon, daughter to become a phoenix” China launched the slogan in 1980s: “Education is the foundation of Modernization”, “ One hundred year planning, education as a basis”. In 1990s launched another slogan: “rely on science and education to rejuvenate the nation”. We can say Chinese culture is a obvious example of importance of education in Asia. High Expectation on Children and Students: there was a story in China: “Mother of Mencius, three time resettlement”, the mother of Great Philosopher Mencius’s mother re-settled three times in order to let Mencius can get high education through good teachers, good neighborhoods, and good classmates. If parents, schools, and students can require strictly high standards on students, they will get high results, because almost students have the same level of IQ. There is research shows:[3] “Children from Chinese, Indian and mixed-race backgrounds have achieved the best exam results in Scottish schools for the third year running. Statistics published by the Scottish government show that Chinese students got the best grades among those who sat fourth-year exams last year.” It indicates there is significance between students and parental expectation. Community over Individuals: In the culture of Asia, communism has been overpowering individualism; Confucianism think human being is a social being, as a member of society, family, and community, learning the relation with other as a mean to become a mutual and responsible person. In many centuries, Chinese scholar launched the virtue: “being concerned about the country and the people before anything else” as the direction of virtue. Fr. Aligan also taught: “Economic development will be achieved more efficiently if the leaders are authorized to restrict individual’s political and civil rights for the sake of political stability.”[4] That is to say community over individual has positive in community building. Japanese also emphasize: “community spirituality”, these perspective can contribute the economic development and social harmony. That is why the Asian do not want have competition each other, while Asian show their community competencies in the international areas. Emphasizing spiritual development not material development: here the spirituality includes culture, morality, and ethics. Due to Confucianism and Taoism are oriented in Ethics and human centred, so ethics is prior to other aspects. In Confucian Analects Chapter 11 says: the Master said, “The superior man thinks of virtue; the small man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the sanctions of the law; the small man thinks of favours which he may receive.” [5] either Confucianism or Taoism is humanity philosophy, they observe human beings through the perspective of social and political ethics, with thinking human value is reached by his relational development with society and state, for instance, family, community, and state. Those who are Asian have the common sense is that education cannot separate with value concern. People’s future vision is based on the perspective of moral order. Until today, Asian is going to enter into endeavour of modernization, China particularly intensively develop “intellectual and ideological development and material progress” this as double standard in national development, and education plays a very important role in building these two developments. From Kuala Lumpur declaration, 26th-28th October 1993, [6] it is clear that show contemporary Asian re-emphasize the sign of importance of Ethic value. Emphasizing national exam to properly use human recourses: in Chinese history, even the ancient Chinese Emperors who selected his officials through Imperial Examination System, but not depend on hereditary authority or property. The ultimate purpose of exam in Confucianism education is “self-cultivation, regulating family, running state, and peace in the world.” In fact, China concern more on the education of those who are in the political affairs, not focus on the individual educational development. This kind of examination system as a instrument to select officials, ever stimulated many people studying hard in order to achieve success in education and career. But over-emphasizing examination can depress the talent and creative strength of many juveniles, resulting in examination is not for education, it may is very negative consequences of national examination system. Emphasizing legislative authority: Confucius thinks that education is an effective instrument towards manage state affairs. Through education, ruler can learn how to love his people, and people can learn how to be a loyalty; ruler’s love and people’s obedience promote social stability. There is paternity in the family, authority of teachers in school, and both authorities cause Asian student to be ordered people in the school. These effects on the areas of politics and economies, national superpower is propitious to cooperate between political strength and business circles, at the same time it is better to government to implement her policies. Particular government created a policy that prioritizes independent private enterprises to develop them, it also re-respect government authority to profit national economic development. Some scholars think that authorized modern government is a main factor to promote economic development of East Asia. Culture’s negative effects on educational and economic development: Necessarily of cultural innovation In the progress of social development, culture, education, and economics are always joining together, different context of culture have different influences on social and political lives. Therefore, many people question: In as much Asian culture benefits on economic development, why is Asian economy just being on economic development in recent years? Some scholars count Confucianism as a conservative and snagged factor in development. Although this criticizing is extreme, but may as well say, besides social and political factors, the traditional culture is a factor to impede economic development of many Asian countries. Here I cite some issues which seem negative influences: Despise individuals: it extremely emphasizes community and social interests, individuals looked as an instrument for community life, meanwhile, it generates very big gap and difference between human rights and human duties. Despise the relation between human beings and cosmology: it results in experimental science, engineering, and applied technology are behind the Western countries. Over-emphasize the function of examination: it inhibits many students who are in talent of many academic areas. Despise utility and commerce: Confucianism idealist in educational school over address Four Books and Five Classics and other classic works, and despise the application of sciences and technology. Separate hand with mind and academy with experiences. Experimental skills and commerce is put behind the people of all works. Gender Discrimination: in Confucian Analects Chapter 25 says: “Of all people, girls and servants are the most difficult to behave to,” [7] centuries-long history, women were only ancillas in the family have no power and rights. Women cannot receive high education, of course cannot engage in economic and social development so that women played very limited role in society. This is main reason why the high drop rate of girls of school in Asia, women is not high educated as usual until last 20 years, and results in high rate of infant mortality, the rapid population in rural areas, childhood dystrophy, and lower health care, these cause the social stagnation. The value of humanity is still challenged up to now, the negative elements of traditional culture are still harming the social transformation, considering these, we should innovate our traditional culture and values, whereas education is the only one which can trigger and advance positive cultural value in this century. Through Education, China imparts the common value in school China is trying to preserve her good tradition, at the same time, constantly realizes the dependence and connection among the nations globally and regionally, under the trend of globalization, China is trying to initiate positive traditional values integrated with universal values. Respect and carry forward the fine tradition of our national culture and Patriotism. Traditional value is the root of Morden society, we are living more and more in globalization, so we need to preserve our cultural characteristics. Patriotism is a basic value which is not only limited in nationalist, but the real internationalist to supplement each other. Social accountability: It is the Asian traditional value communism which is applied in the condition of contemporary world, this accountability should show that how to love people, and have duties to contribute on national economy, society, technology, education, culture, and other aspects. Equality and freedom: These two perspectives may as the ultimate goal in human society. Duty on environmental protection and sustainable development:“Sustainable development is a process in which communities anticipate and accommodate the needs of current and future generations in ways that reproduce and balance local social, economic, and ecological systems, and link local actions to global concerns”[8] China now is concerning its natural recourses, so she encourages her people to work for the future generation according to the sustainable strategy on economic, social, and environmental issues. Human rights: for Chinese, we may have different definition of human rights, which firstly refer to subsistence right and development rights, often times Westerner censure China abuse human rights based on Western value of human rights and culture. Here I can say the Chinese people are the world's most meek people, in their world, the kingship bearing interest several Millenniums, worshiping kingship can be said to be deeply rooted in the people, who just want to live safely, and never come up with what excess what they should have. Do not concern too much a matter of policy and a ruling party, first of all, the people think of “compliance” and “implementation”, never propose the dissidence before the implementation of any policy, only found that they say some objection when they face the problem of implementation, there is only one need is to having a safe life, they do not want to toss to others. But recent year, China also works for the universal rights, i.e. gender equality, women empowerment, democracy, and other issues. Sympathy spirituality: This is the fundamental education; it is not only in family itself, but further to others, community, society, marginalized people, and whole human beings. Collaboration spirituality: 在日常生活的方方面面都充满了竞争的时候，合作显得尤为重要。All aspects of daily life is full of competition, so cooperation is particularly important. 如同雅克?德洛尔所说，“世界就是我们的村庄。… … 团结应该是当今世界的主调：每个人都必须承担自己的那一份职责”。As Jacques Delors said, "the world is our village. ... ... [9]United should be the main theme of today's world: everyone must bear their own responsibilities. 热爱劳动 。 Hard working: “劳动创造世界”，这是永远的至理。"Labor to create the world," This is the rationale forever. 年轻一代应自小养成劳动的习惯和对劳动的积极态度。 The young people should develop work habits at a young age and the positive attitude of labor. 企业精神 。Entrepreneurial spirituality. 这种价值观念不只为提高生产率和经济竞争所需要，而且在生活的各种情境中都不可缺少。Such value is not only to improve productivity and economic competitiveness, but also it is essential in life situations. 创造精神 。Creative spirituality. 无论是技术革新，还是社会进步、经济开发和其他各种人类活动，都将永远需要这种精神。Either technological innovation, or social progress and economic development, will be required this spirit forever. 对变革的开放心态 。Openness to change. 世界一切在变，时时在变，唯有变化恒在。 The world is changing, and constantly changing, we 这种开放心态不只使人接受积极的变化，而且使人成为变革的力量。not only should be opening minded to accept positive change, and enabling people to become agents of change. 值得指出的是，21世纪所需要的这些共同的文化价值观念，大部分都早已深深地蕴藏在人类文明的悠久文化传统之中。 It is worth noting that required common cultural values of 21 century, most of them have long been deeply embedded in the human civilization and a long cultural tradition. 它们包涵了真、善、美、正义、平等、自由的道德理想，而这些价值观念都早已由人类的思想先驱作了深刻的阐述，也都已完好地保存在人类的思想宝库之中。 They includes the truth, goodness and beauty, justice, equality, and freedom, and these values have long been interpreted in a profound exposition by pioneer, and also have been well preserved in the treasure house of human thought. 比如，“关心的精神”，可见诸于儒家的“仁”；环境保护的意识可见诸于道家对技术进步对自然资源的破坏性后果的忧虑及其“回归自然”的主张之中。 For instance, "carefulness" can be evidenced in the Confucian "Benevolence"; environmental awareness can be evidenced by Taoism "return to nature," the idea of being, the consequences of progress of technology is devastating natural environment. 在亚洲，源于人与人之间互爱的利他主义，数百年来一直被尊为最高的人类价值。 In Asia, the altruism of mutual love, for hundreds of years it has been the title of the highest human values. 21世纪的人类也许会发现，孔子学说的智慧还将像数千年以前一样富有教益。In the 21st century, mankind will discover that the wisdom of Confucius doctrine will be the same as for thousands of years ago the richest lessons. 因此，为未来年代培养共同的价值文化的方法之一，就是用伟大的经典著作教育年轻一代，并继承人类的优秀传统。 Therefore, in order to cultivate the next decade the value of the common culture, one way is to use great classics educate the younger generation, and inherit the excellent traditions of humanity. 另一种方法则是通过教育促进东西方文化之间的跨文化学习。 Another way is through education to promote culture between East and West cross-cultural study. 从文化上来说，东西方是可以相容、互补的，而非完全相反、相抵的。 From a cultural point of view, the East and West are compatible and complementary, rather than completely opposite, offset of. 儒家的量才取仕而非靠世袭特权的思想，与古希腊的“由优者治”的思想十分相似。 Confucian exam system is rather than relying on the idea of hereditary privilege, it is very similar to the idea of ancient Greece, “the gifted person rule”. 从历史上看，亚洲向西方的文化学习，经历了从物质层面（现代技术）走向制度层面（比如法律）和文化价值层面（比如科学精神）的过程，而西方在经历了伴随工业文明而来的社会弊病之后，也越来越转向东方寻求构建精神文明的智慧。 Historically, Asia has been learning Western cultural, experiencing from the material aspects (modern technology) to the system level (such as laws) and cultural value dimensions (such as the scientific spirit), whereas the West has experienced social ills accompanied by industrial civilization, but also more and more towards the East to seek the wisdom of building a spiritual civilization. 正是教育构筑了东西方文化交流的桥梁。 Education is to build a cultural bridge between East and West. 如果东西方能够相互学习、彼此受益，融合对方的文化长处（比如，把个人的首创精神与集体团队精神结合起来，把竞争与合作统一起来，把技术创造能力与道德素质融合起来），那么，就能逐步形成共同的价值观念和一种有全球属性的伦理文化，而这将是一种重要的文化革新，也将是教育对人类的一种重要贡献。 If the East and the West can learn from each other, mutual benefit, integration of the strengths of each other's culture (for example, combining the creative spirit of individuals and the collective team spirit, unifying the competition and cooperation, merging together the ability of creative technology and the moral qualities), then there will be able to gradually form the common values and a global property of the ethical culture, and this will be an important cultural innovation and education that contributes to humanity. 以人民为中心的发展：教育与文化的最终目标People-centered development: Ultimate goal of education 发展以“人类潜力的充分展现”为实质内涵，发展是教育和文化的最终目标。 Development as “the full human potential actualization” which is substantial educational and cultural development, 今天，亚洲地区强调教育是“发展的一种关键力量”，强调文化是发展的重要手段和有机组成部分。today, the emphasis of education in China is “development as a key force”, stressed the development of culture is an important means and organic components. 像在其他地区一样，亚洲越来越把“发展”看成是一个包涵经济、政治、社会、环境以及文化等不同层面的、复杂而活跃的动态过程。Development covered economic, political, social, environment and culture dimensions at different levels, complex and active dynamic process. 作为人类得以生存和发展、从事上层建筑领域各种活动的物质基础，经济发展对教育和文化有至关紧要的作用。Human beings aim to survive, develop, and engage in various activities of superstructure immaterial acts, economic and social development, but only education and culture have a crucial role for them. 特别是对发展中国家来说，国民经济现代化对教育和文化发展的重要性，再强调也不会过份。Especially in developing China, the modernization of the national economy promotes educational and cultural development, in亚太一个地区就有8.3亿人还生活在贫困之中，在这种情况下，经济增长就天经地义地成为消除贫困的各种努力中的基本内容，也成为教育和文化发展的一个前提条件。 Asia-Pacific region, there are 830 million people live in poverty, in this case, the economic growth as a means for poverty eradication efforts, and the basic content of education and culture has also become a prerequisite for development. 没有强大的民族工业、农业、科学技术和国防，教育事业就没有必需的资源和保障，甚至政治的独立也将受到阻碍。 Without a strong national industry, agriculture, science and technology and national defense, education will lack necessary resources and security, and even political independence will be hindered. 没有以技术和基础设施发展为内容的物质文明，精神文明就会缺失强大有力的根基。 但是，如果物质文明的进步不与精神文明的建设并行，人类社会就将产生种种弊病。However, if the progress of material civilization and spiritual civilization construction is not parallel, there will have all sorts of social problems.[10] 如果现代化的努力不以人和文化的发展作为其目标和核心，那么，经济发展和技术进步就会失去真谛。 If the modernization against educational and cultural development as part of its objectives and core, then economic development and technological progress will lose the true meaning. In the 21st century, the economy will be increasingly in technology-intensive industries, human society will be increasingly knowledge-intensive, and therefore, education and training is to develop human resources.在21世纪，经济产业将会日益技术密集化，人类社会将会日益知识密集化，因此，通过教育和培训开发人力资源将会起越来越举足轻重的作用。只有借教育之力，才能同时支撑以物质文明作根基、以精神文明作筋骨的社会大厦。 Only based on the power of education, society will simultaneously support human-centered development. 在东方的中国，从古代孔子等先哲到当代毛泽东、邓小平等思想家，人们珍视和追求“世界大同”的理想已有数千年的历史。 There are many Chinese ancient and contemporary philosophers cherish and pursuit of “great world” ideal in thousands of years of history. 在西方，从希腊的柏拉图到法国启蒙主义、英国人文主义、欧洲文艺复兴、美国《独立宣言》 ，人们为平等、正义、自由、人类尊严的理想也奋斗了许多世纪。 In the West, from Greek Plato to the French Enlightenment, Humanism in England, the European Renaissance, the American "Declaration of Independence", all work and struggle for equality, justice, freedom, human dignity in many centuries. Mankind has never stopped to coordinate of economic, educational, and cultural dimensions of development efforts. We use dialectic approach to understand the relationship between our traditional Asian and contemporary trend of globalization on education and culture, it also embodies the United Nations Development Program initiated by “the development of the people as the center, the development for the people, and the development by the people”. An outstanding cultural traditions and the growing economic prosperity in Asia, will, through its unprecedented scale of the development of education, enrich the quality and excellent human resources in order to sustain world peace and sustainable human development in the 21st century. [1] Fr. Rodel Aligan, O. p, UST professor of Philosophy of Value, 2008-2009 school year, 2nd semester [2] Zhou Nanzhao, Asian perspective, Accessed March 23, 2009 http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/education/lifelonglearning/conclusion_11.html [3] Chinese and Asian pupils perform better in exams, Lorraine Davidson, March 10, 2009, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article5884221.ece [4] Ibid, Asian Value [5]James Legge, D.D., LL.D., The Four Books: The Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, Confucian Analects, and The works of Mencius, with English translation and notes, Culture Book Co., Taipei, 1981, p. 164 [6] Conference: Asian Forum of Parliamentarians on Population Development (4th: 1993: Kuala Lumpur)http://www.popline.org/docs/1468/164950.html [7]James Legge, D.D., LL.D., The Four Books: The Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, Confucian Analects, and The works of Mencius, with English translation and notes, Culture Book Co., Taipei, 1981, p.393. [8] Philip R. Berke, Does Sustainable Development Offer a New Direction for Planning? Challenges for the Twenty-First Century, Journal of Planning Literature 2002; 17; 21, p.33. [9]Lourdes R. Quisumbing, President, Asia-Pacific Network for International Education and Values Education Former Secretary of Education, Philippines, VALUES EDUCATION for HUMAN SOLIDARITY. [10] Zhou Nanzhao, Asian perspective, Accessed March 23, 2009 http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/education/lifelonglearning/conclusion_11.html

in front the central library in Luven, that is how I feel swimming in the sea where is knowledge existed for huamn reason, go force for which may be a part of my nessersary to urge existence in the world, I am no longer anguish at all, in which 50 and 50 happiness and anguish in my life, finding whom and how I should be for infinite being .